Table 1 Schön’s reflective practitioner model mapped onto a general research methodology^b

1 Tacit ‘knowing in action’: performing a task unreflectingly

0 Unconscious task performance (0 because it precedes reflection)

A Assessing if task execution matches or mismatches the desired effect: in case of a match this is an unconscious/subconscious process; in case of a mismatch: ‘reflection-on-action’

1 Sensing an unexpected outcome: what is going on? Reflecting on one’s understanding of, feelings about and experience with a particular incident

2 Surprise: a mismatch is assessed in the event when the outcome of task execution is unexpected (positive or negative)

2 Experiencing and acknowledging an unexpected outcome: is there a problem? Structuring the incident and bringing it to the surface (explicating what is implicit)

3 ‘Reflection within the action-present’^a

3 Assessing (‘scoping’) the implication of the outcome (defining boundaries and governing values; critical evaluation of outcomes)

4 Reflection-in-action

4 Assessing outputs and outcomes and developing alternatives (conceptualizing, restructuring)

5 On-the-spot experimenting and testing

5 Experimenting and testing alternatives (general hypothesizing, (re)designing new actions) and striving for validated data (operationalization; putting new actions into a testable framework)

B Ante-action-reflection (not per se in the case of triple-loop learning)

6 Anticipating effects of the newly chosen solution; pre-evaluation (specific hypothesizing)

Performing the task: ‘reflection-on-action’

7 Executing the new solution (intervention, implementation of new action)

(Return to) A Reflection-on-action

8 Evaluating the outcome of the new action or solution (feedback, a return to ‘reflection-in-action’ and ‘on-action’)