A Systems View Across Time and Space
Table 2 Descriptive statistics and variable description
Variables | Mean | S.D | Min | Max | Description | Source |
|---|---|---|---|---|---|---|
Dependent variables | ||||||
 Innovativeness (ordinal) | 1.56 | 0.48 | 1.00 | 3.00 | Average of three items, each indicating product, market, and process innovativeness of a start-up on a three-point scale | GEM 2009 |
 Growth orientation (ordinal) | 1.90 | 0.92 | 1.00 | 4.00 | Difference between the current and expected number of employees: ≤ 0 (= 1), 1–5 (= 2), 6–19 (= 3), > 19 (= 4) | GEM 2009 |
 International orientation (ordinal) | 1.59 | 0.83 | 1.00 | 4.00 | Proportion of customers from other countries: 0% (= 1), 1–25% (= 2); 26–75% (= 3); > 75% (= 4) | GEM 2009 |
Independent and control variables | ||||||
 Environmental orientation (continuous) | 0.200 | 0.205 | 0 | 1 | Share of points allocated to environmental value creation compared to all points allocated to environmental and economic value creation | GEM 2009 |
 Gender (binary) | 0.600 | 0.489 | 0 | 1 | Entrepreneur’s self-reported sex: female (= 0), male (= 1) | GEM 2009 |
 Age (continuous) | 37.2 | 11.5 | 18 | 64 | Entrepreneur's current age | GEM 2009 |
 Education (ordinal) | 2.07 | 0.79 | 1 | 3 | Highest educational level: none or some secondary education (= 1), secondary education (= 2), post-secondary education (= 3) | GEM 2009 |
 Network (binary) | 0.645 | 0.479 | 0 | 1 | Entrepreneur knows someone who started a firm in the past two years: no (= 0), yes (= 1) | GEM 2009 |
 Entrepreneurial skills (binary) | 0.864 | 0.343 | 0 | 1 | Entrepreneur indicates to have the required knowledge, skill, and experience to launch a start-up: no (= 0), yes (= 1) | GEM 2009 |
 Entrepreneurial stage (binary) | 0.502 | 0.500 | 0 | 1 | Nascent entrepreneur actively involved in launching a start-up (= 0) or new entrepreneur managing or owning a start-up that is up to 42 months old (= 1) | GEM 2009 |
 Entrepreneurial motivation (binary) | 0.720 | 0.451 | 0 | 1 | Necessity-driven (= 0) or opportunity-driven (= 1) entrepreneurial activity | GEM 2009 |
 Fear of failure (binary) | 0.280 | 0.447 | 0 | 1 | Fear of failure would prevent entrepreneur from starting a business (= 1) or not (= 0) | GEM 2009 |
 GDP per capita (continuous) | 0.18 | 0.18 | 0.080 | 8.82 | Gross domestic product per capita in constant 2010 US$ divided by 10,000 | WDI 2009 |
 Population growth (continuous) | 1.30 | 1.68 | − 1.65 | 11.04 | Annual population growth in percent | WDI 2009 |