Table 1 Deliberative techniques

Consensus Conferences

When stakeholder groups strongly disagree on a scientific or technological topic

• An inclusive and representative collection of medium-to-large-sized individuals (60–150)

• Lay-panel (10–14 unpaid volunteers)

• Lay-panel facilitator

• Experts (12–15 scientific and opinion-focusing experts)

• Multiple days (3)

Participants hear from ‘experts’ on the important arguments, then collaborate in small groups to understand each other’s points of view, reflect on crucial problems, and discover common ground. Each small group’s themes are fed back to the larger group

Consensus Conferences offer an opportunity for non-experts to engage in discussions with knowledgeable individuals on topics that are technically intricate

Citizen Juries

When a fair and democratic decision-making process is required for matters that impact the community

• Diverse and representative sample

• Small group sizes—12–24 participants

• High preparation costs

• Multiple days (2–4)

Citizen Juries bring together a diverse group of randomly selected individuals to deliberate on community issues, guided by expert information. These jurors, from various backgrounds, collaboratively discuss and evaluate perspectives to reach a consensus, typically producing a report with recommendations. This process highlights the power of participatory democracy, despite facing logistical and representational challenges, by empowering ordinary citizens to directly influence decisions impacting their community

Planning Cells

For tackling pressing policy or planning matters that involve several alternatives and require impartial, citizen-led solutions without pre-existing strong divisions

• Approximately 25 randomly selected participants

• Time commitment—a week

• Experts, stakeholders, and interest groups

• Commitment to implement the outcomes

Planning Cells are a technique in which randomly chosen individuals, serving as temporary consultants, work together to address specific policy or planning matters. Guided by facilitators and with the input of experts, individuals engage in thoughtful discussion and generate suggestions. These proposals provide impartial and varied viewpoints, aiming to distribute decision-making authority more evenly between the public and authorities

Deliberative Polling

When there is a requirement to assess well-informed public opinion on specific, clearly defined subjects, by combining statistical representation with thorough thought

• 100–600 participants based on demographic factors

• Discussions in facilitated small groups

• High cost

• Registered trademark of Centre for Deliberative Democracy, Stanford University

Deliberative polling entails the careful selection of a varied group of individuals to engage in in-depth debates on certain topics, after the provision of comprehensive material and supported group interactions. This approach, which involves conducting surveys before and after deliberation, assesses the potential changes in well-informed public opinion regarding specific themes. It combines statistical representation with qualitative research, but it necessitates substantial resources and meticulous planning to assure both efficacy and representativeness

Citizen Panels

For local authorities or organisations seeking to evaluate popular preferences and opinions regarding local services, priorities, and developments, particularly when focusing on certain demographic groups within a community

• From hundred to several thousand participants

• Systematically renewable panel

• Medium cost

• Needs considerable staff support

• Low time expense

Citizen Review Panels are inclusive assemblies employed by local authorities to collect citizen perspectives on local matters. These panels are created using various recruitment strategies and include members in activities such as surveys and focus groups to gain insights into community issues and goals. Although they provide focused feedback and efficient research capabilities, they necessitate substantial staff assistance and frequent upgrades to uphold their accuracy and efficacy